Class 12 history chapter 3 notes, kinship caste and class notes

kinship caste and class Notes: Class 12 history chapter 3 notes

Textbook	NCERT
Class	Class 12
Subject	History
Chapter	Chapter 3
Chapter Name	kinship caste and class
Category	History Notes
Medium	English

Class 12 history chapter 3 notes, kinship caste and class notes here we will be learn about the Mahabharata and the social and economic life of the people of that time.

Importance of Textual Traditions : –

🔹 Historians often use textual traditions and inscriptions to understand the contemporary society. Careful use of these texts allows to piece together attitudes and practices that shaped social histories.

Mahabharata : –

🔹 Mahabharata is the most detailed and colossal epic in the world. according to literary traditions, this epic was composed by a sage named Vyas who dictated the text to Shri Ganesha.

🔹 It has 18 books, or parvas and it more than one lakh verses. This is the greatest heritage not only of India but of the world.

🔹 The old name of Mahabharata was Jai Samhita. It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 ВСЕ onwards). The Mahabharata, like any other epic, contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements.

Basic features of Mahabharata : –

• Many answers to the original writers of the Mahabharata
• It was orally composed by the charioteer -bards
• Later, the Brahmanas wrote the epic first and then the sage Ved Vyasa.
• Mahabharata is the most colossal epic in the world.
• Mahabharata is source of fraternity, marriage and paternal lineage.
• Later, incorporation of new stones and events.
• Mahabharata has dynamic text
• Mahabharata Translation in various languages.

The central story of Mahabharata : –

🔹 The central story of the Mahabharata is about two sets of warring cousins. It describes a feud over land and power.

🔹 These were the Kauravas and Pandavas who belonged to a single ruling family of the Kurus-a lineage dominating over one of the Janapadas.

🔹 The conflict ended in a battle in which the pandavas emerge victorious. After that, patrilineal succession was proclaimed.

The Critical Edition of Mahabharata : –

🔹 One of the most ambitious projects of scholarship began in 1919, under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V. S. Sukthankar. A team comprising dozens of scholars initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata.

🔹 They selected the verses that appeared common to most versions and published these in several volumes, running into over 13,000 pages. The project took 47 years to complete.

🔹 Two things became Apparent in this entire process:

1. There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts.
2. There were enormous regional variation in the ways in which the text had been transmitted over the centuries.

Terms for family : kula, jnati, vamsha : –

🔸 kula : – Sanskrit texts use the term kula to designate families.

🔸 jnati : – Sanskrit texts use the term jnati for the larger network of kinfolk.

🔸 vamsha : – The term vamsha is used for lineage.

Meaning of Patriliny : –

🔹 Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.

Meaning of Matriliny : –

🔹 Matriliny is the term used when descent is traced through the mother.

Families : –

🔹 Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more technical term, kinfolk.

Features of family or Information about families : –

🔹 Family was an important institution of society.

🔹 People of the same family share food together.

🔹 Family members use resources together and share them.

🔹 Family members Live and work together.

🔹 Family members perform rituals together.

🔹 In some societies, regard cousins are also considered blood relations.

🔹 Family relations are considered ‘natural’ and related by ‘blood’.

Patriliny system : –

🔹 According to patrilineal inheritance, sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of their fathers when the latter died. The main story line of Mahabharta strengthen the idea of patriliny. Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards) followed this system.

🔸 variations in patriliny system : sometimes there were no sons, in some situations brothers succeeded one another, sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne, and, in very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power.

Status of daughters in patriliny system : –

🔹 While sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this framework.

• They had no claims to the resources of the household.
• At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable. This system, called exogamy (literally, marrying outside),

🔹 This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father.

Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras : –

🔹 These are codes of social behavior meant to be followed by Brahmanas in particular and society in general. 500 BCE The Sanskrit texts in which these norms were compiled were called Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras. They are written in Sanskrit.

Manusmriti : –

🔹 It is one of the best-known legal texts of early India, written in Sanskrit. the Manusmriti, was compiled between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE.

Marriage : –

🔹 marriage is “a religious sacrament in which a man and a woman are bound in a permanent relationship for the physical, social and spiritual need of dharma, procreation and sexual pleasure.”

Rules of marriage : –

🔹 The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as “good” while the remaining were condemned. It is possible that these were practised by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms.

🔹 Eight forms of marriage : –

1. Brahma marriage : – Brahma marriage is the Hindu term for a father’s daughter marrying a bridegroom from the same caste through religious procedures.
2. Daiva form of Marriage : – A father gifts his daughter to a priest.
3. Arsha form of Marriage : – A token bride price is given in place of the dowry.
4. Prajapatya form of Marriage : – A father marries his daughter without dowry and bride-price.
5. Asura form of Marriage : – Bride was brought from her father forcefully.
6. Gandharva form of marriage : – Love marriage
7. Rakshasa form of marriage : – Marriage which was done by capture or kidnapping.
8. Paishacha form of marriage : – Marriage by seduction.

Endogamy : –

🔹 Endogamy refers to marriage within a unit – this could be a kin group, caste, or a group living in the same locality.

Exogamy : –

🔹 Exogamy refers to marriage outside the unit. exogamy meant that the lives of young girls and women belonging to families that claimed high status were often carefully regulated to ensure that they were married at the “right” time and to the “right” person.

Polygyny : –

🔹 Polygyny is the practice of a man having several wives. This practice was less prevalent. Draupati in Mahabharata is an example of Polygyny.

Polyandry : –

🔹 Polyandry is the practice of a woman having several husbands. Vichitarviya had two wives in Mahabharata. King Pandu also had two wives.

Gotra : –

🔹 Gotra is a Brahmanical practice which came into practice after about 1000 BC. In Brahmanical practice people were classified into gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants.

Rules of gotra : –

🔹 Two rules about gotra were particularly important:

1. women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage
2. and members of the same gotra could not marry.

The gotra of women : –

🔹 women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage.

🔸 Dispute: Insriptional evidence regarding the inheritance of gotra among Satavahanas : –

• But Satavahana can be called an exception to this.
• The mother’s gotra was before the son’s name.
• For example, Gautami’s son Shatakarni and Vashishthi’s son Pulumavi.
• That is, even after marriage, the Satavahana queens adopted the Gotra of their father instead of their husband.
• It also turns out that some queens were from the same gotra.
• This fact was against the rules of exogamy system.

Were mothers important?

🔹 Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics (names derived from that of the mother). Although this may suggest that mothers were important, we need to be cautious before we arrive at any conclusion. In the case of the Satavahanas we know that succession to the throne was generally patrilineal.

Features of Indian social life in the Mahabharata : –

• Society based on caste system
• Distribution of social work according to varna.
• Patriarch Society.
• Universal recognition of the rules of marriage.
• women’s gotra rules
• Emphasis on having son in the society.
• Social inequality
• Untouchability

Varnas system : –

🔹Varna System is the historical term used to depict the Caste System in today’s world. The origination of the word “Varna” came from the word “Vri,” which means the choice to choose one’s occupation.

🔹 Brahmanas claimed that this order, in which they were ranked first, was divinely ordained, while placing groups classified as Shudras and “untouchables” at the very bottom of the social order. In Brahmanical theory, Caste, like varna, was based on birth.

Meaning of the word ‘Varna’ : –

🔹 On the basis of karma (actions), the four parts into which the Aryans had divided the society are called Varna. In the early society there were four varnas: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.

Rules related to ‘occupation’ : –

🔹 The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras also contained rules about the ideal “occupations” of the four categories or varnas.

🔸 Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts.

🔸 Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts.

🔸 Vaishyas study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts, engage in agriculture, pastoralism and trade.

🔸Shudras were assigned only one occupation that of serving the three “higher” varnas.

What was done to ensure that the rules were followed?

• The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategies for enforcing these norms.

🔹 One, as we have just seen, was to assert that the varna order was of divine origin.

🔹 Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.

🔹 And third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.

Can there always be Kshatriya kings?

🔹 No, this is false, there have been many kings in history who were not Kshatriyas. Example : –

• Buddhist texts suggested Mauryas were Kshatriyas, Brahmanical texts described them as being of “low” origin.
• The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas.

🔹 From these examples we come to know that anyone could become a king, it was not necessary that he be born in a Kshatriya clan, strength, resources and support were more important to become a king.

Caste ( jati ) : –

🔹 In Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on birth. However, while the number of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis.

🔹 In fact, whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups Those did not easily fit into the fourfold varna system, they classified them as a jati. Ex :- Nishad, goldsmith or suvarnakara.

🔹 Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds.

🔹 Castes were created according to occupations. Some people adopted other occupations

Beyond the four varnas: Integration : –

🔹 There were some communities whose social practices were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas. For example, categories such as the nishada, to which Ekalavya belonged. Sometimes those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labelled as mlechchhas. There was a sharing of ideas and beliefs between these people.

Beyond the four varnas: Subordination and conflict : –

🔹 The Brahmanas considered some social categories as “untouchable”. They were primarily connected with the performance of rituals which they considered as pure. So they avoided taking food from ‘untouchables’. Some activities were regarded as “polluting”.

Chandalas : –

🔹 These included handling corpses and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks were known as chandalas. They were placed at the very bottom of the social hierarchy. Touching and seeing them was regarded as “polluting “by the Brahmanas.

Status of Chandalas : –

🔹 The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of the chandalas.

• They had to live outside the village.
• They used discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead and ornaments of iron.
• They could not walk about in villages and cities at night.
• They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve as executioners.

🔹 the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian (c. fifth century CE) wrote that “untouchables” had to sound a clapper in the streets so that people could avoid seeing them.

🔹 Another Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang (c. seventh century), observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live outside the city.

Resources and Status :-

🔹 The study of economic relations revealed that the social position of slaves, landless agricultural labourers, hunters, fisherfolk, pastoralists, peasants, village headmen, craftspersons, merchants and kings etc. all depended on how much control they had over economic resources.

Access of property : –

🔹 The criteria on which property is granted is as follow

1. On the basis of Gender
2. On the basis of Varna

1. Gendered access to property ( Different rights of men and women on property ) : –

🔹 According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest. Women could not claim a share of these resources.

🔹 However, women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as stridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it.

🔹 At the same time, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables, without the husband’s permission.

Right to property of women and men in the Mahabharata period : –

🔸 According to manusmriti :

• The paternal estate was to be equally divided in among all sons after death of the father but the eldest had a special right.
• A woman had a right on gifts received from her parents or husband.
• Women had a claim on “Stridhana”.
• Generally men had control over land, cattle and wealth.
• Upper class women had their right over the resources.
• The varna system was also a basis of the right to property.
• Brahmins and kshatriyas were a wealthy Varna.
• Sometimes there are descriptions of poor Brahmins and rich shudras as well.
• Men and women had different ways of acquiring wealth.

How could men and women acquire wealth?

🔸 For men, the Manusmriti declares, there are seven means of acquiring wealth:

• inheritance,
• finding,
• purchase,
• conquest,
• investment,
• work,
• and acceptance of gifts from good people.

🔸 For women, there are six means of acquiring wealth:

• what was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal procession,
• or as a token of affection,
• and what she got from her brother, mother or father.
• She could also acquire wealth through any subsequent gift
• and whatever her “affectionate” husband might give her.

Stridhana : –

🔹 In ancient times, women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as called stridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it.

2. Varna and access to property : –

🔹 According to the Brahmanical texts, another criterion (apart from gender) for regulating access to wealth was varna. As we saw earlier, the only “occupation” prescribed for Shudras was servitude, while a variety of occupations were listed for men of the first three varnas. If these provisions were actually implemented, the wealthiest men would have been the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas.

Explaining Social Differences: A social contract : –

🔹 In a myth found in a text known as the Sutta Pitaka they suggested that originally human beings did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plants fully developed.

🔹 All beings lived in an idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they needed for each meal. However, there was a gradual deterioration of this state as human beings became increasingly greedy, vindictive and deceitful.

Handling Texts: Historians and the Mahabharata : –

🔹 Historians examine whether texts were written in Prakrit, Pali or Tamil, (the languages that were probably used by ordinary people) or in Sanskrit.

🔹 The elements of consideration for historian while analyzing texts are follows:

• Language of the text-whether it was ordinary people’s language or the language of the priests and elites
• Kind of text-whether it was a mantra or story.
• Author’s perspective in writing the text
• The audience to whom it was written
• Date of the composition or compilation of the text.
• The place of composition.

Language and Content : –

🔹 The version of the Mahabharata is in Sanskrit (although there are versions in other languages as well).

🔹 Historians usually classify the contents of the present text under two broad heads. These are sections that contain stories, designated as the narrative and sections that contain prescriptions about social norms, designated as didactic.

Is it possible that Mahabharata had only one author?

🔹 Who has written this text? There are many answers to this questions.

• The original story was probably composed by charioteer – bards known as Sutas.
• They usually accompanied warriors to the battlefield.
• from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and commit it to writing. Around 200 BCE and 200 CE, worship of Vishnu was growing in importance, and
• Krishna, one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified as Vishnu.
• Between century 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling Manusmriti were added.
• This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa.

Author(s) and Dates : –

🔹 The original story of Mahabharata was probably composed by charioteer bard known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors.

🔹 Then with the emergence of chiefdoms such as Kurus and Panchalas, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to writing.

🔹 In the next phase between C 200 BCE to 200 CE, the growing importance of worship of Lord Vishnu led to the identification of Lord Krishna (one of the important figure in the epic) with him.

🔹 Subsequently, between C 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti was added.

The Search for Convergence : –

🔹 The Mahabharata, like any major epic, contains vivid descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements.

🔹 In 1951-52, the archaeologist BB Lal excavated a site at a village, named Hastinapura in Meerut district.

🔹 Lal found evidence of fine occupational levels but he described only the second and third level. These levels were about the architecture of the houses.

Why Mahabharata is Dynamic Text ( in short ) : –

🔹 Mahabharata is a dynamic text because its various incidents and stories are often retold to us from time to time through pictures, music, plays or other narrations.

🔹 Mahabharata has been written in a variety of languages. From time to time, many stores were included in it.

Why Mahabharata is Dynamic Text ( in detail ) : –

🔹 The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit version. Over the centuries, versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages through an ongoing process of dialogue between peoples, communities, and those who wrote the texts.

🔹 Several stories that originated in specific regions or circulated amongst certain people found their way into the epic. At the same time, the central story of the epic was often retold in different ways.

🔹 Episodes were depicted in sculpture and painting. They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts, i.e., plays, dance and other kinds of narrations.