Peasants, Zamindars and the State question answer: Ncert Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and the State
| Textbook | NCERT |
| Class | Class 12 |
| Subject | History |
| Chapter | Chapter 8 |
| Chapter Name | Peasants, Zamindars and the State class 12 ncert solutions |
| Category | Ncert Solutions |
| Medium | English |
Are you looking for History Class 12 Chapter 8 question answer in english? Now you can download Ncert Solutions For Class 12 History Chapter 8 Peasants, Zamindars and the State pdf from here.
note: All these questions and answers are based on the new syllabus. So the chapter numbers may seem different to you.
[ Answer in 100-150 words ] Class 12 History chapter 8 questions and answers in English
Question 1: What are the problems in using the Ain as a source for reconstructing agrarian history? How do historians deal with this situation?
Answer 1: The Ain-i Akbari, written by Abu’l Fazl in 1598, is an invaluable source for reconstructing the agrarian history of the Mughal period. However, it has several limitations that historians must navigate:
Problems in Using the Ain-i Akbari:
(a) Invaluable but Limited: The Ain-i Akbari offers extensive information about Mughal agrarian practices, administrative setups, and economic conditions. Yet, it has inherent limitations in its scope and reliability.
(b) Errors in Totalling: Numerous errors in totalling have been detected. These are, however, minors and do not detract from the overall quantitative accuracy of the manuals.
(c) Skewed Data Collection: The data in the Ain-i Akbari is not uniformly collected across all provinces. This creates a skewed representation of agrarian conditions. For instance, the text lacks information on the caste composition of the zamindars in Bengal and Orissa (Odisha), indicating regional biases and gaps.
(d) Incomplete Fiscal Data: Although the Ain-i Akbari contains detailed fiscal data, it omits some crucial parameters such as wages and prices. This incomplete data hampers a comprehensive understanding of the economic conditions and labor dynamics of the period.
(e) Limitations value : The detailed list of prices and wages found in the Ain-i Akbari have been acquired from data pertaining to the capital Agra and its surrounding regions. It is, therefore, of limited value for the rest of the empire.
How Historians Deal with These Limitations: To address these limitations, historians employ various strategies:
Supplementing with Provincial Data: Historians augment the information in the Ain-i Akbari with data from provincial records. Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century revenue records from regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra provide more localized and detailed insights into agrarian conditions.
Utilizing East India Company Records: Records from the East India Company also serve as supplementary sources. These records, often meticulously kept, offer additional fiscal and administrative details that help fill gaps left by the Ain-i Akbari.
Question 2: To what extent is it possible to characterise agricultural production in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries as subsistence agriculture? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer 2: In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, agricultural production in India was primarily focused on subsistence agriculture. As rice, wheat or millets were the most frequently cultivated crops, it is said that the primary purpose of agriculture was to feed people. However, this does not imply that all farming activities were solely for subsistence. Historical sources frequently mention terms like “jins-i kamil,” meaning superior crops, which indicate that farmers also cultivated high-quality cash crops. The Mughal state encouraged the cultivation of such crops, as they generated higher revenue through taxes.
Crops like cotton and sugarcane were prominent examples of jins-i kamil, reflecting their significant economic value. Additionally, oilseeds and pulses were also considered cash crops. This dual focus on subsistence and cash crop production shows that an average farmer’s land was used both for meeting basic food needs and for producing goods for trade. This interconnectedness of subsistence and commercial agriculture suggests a more complex and economically diverse agricultural system than merely subsistence farming.
Question 3: Describe the role played by women in agricultural production.
Answer 3: Women played a significant role in agricultural production, contributing in various capacities across different aspects of rural life:
(i) Active Participation in Agricultural Work: Women worked alongside men in the fields, performing essential tasks integral to agricultural production. While men were primarily responsible for tilling and ploughing the lands, women were involved in sowing seeds, weeding the crops, and threshing the harvest. Agricultural production at the time was carried out with the labour and resources of the entire.
(ii) Skilled Artisans and Diverse Contributions: Beyond their contributions in the fields, women engaged in various skilled tasks such as spinning yarn, kneading clay for pottery, and embroidery. These activities not only supplemented agricultural work but also added economic value through artisanal craftsmanship.
(iii) Property Rights and Economic Participation: Among the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property, which allowed them to actively participate in the rural land market. Women, including widows, could sell property they had inherited, especially in regions like Punjab. Both Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris. They were free to sell or mortgage their zamidari rights.
(iv) Women-Zamindars and Leadership Roles: In the eighteenth century, many women-zamindars were prominent in Bengal. These women managed large estates and played significant roles in local governance and economic activities. In eighteenth century, Bengal had many women- zamindars. In fact, the Rajshah zamindari which was one of the most famous of the time was headed by a woman.
Question 4: Discuss, with examples, the significance of monetary transactions during the period under consideration.
Answer 4: Significance of Monetary Transactions During the Period
(i) Political Stability and Trade Expansion: The Mughal Empire’s political stability facilitated flourishing trade relations with major empires such as the Ming (China), Safavid (Iran), and Ottoman (Turkey) empires. This stability led to increased overland trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean Sea.
(ii) Discovery of New Lands and Sea Routes: The discovery of new lands and sea routes significantly boosted trade between Asia and Europe. A substantial influx of silver into India occurred as payment for goods exported from India, enhancing the monetary economy.
(iii) Observations by Giovanni Careri: Giovanni Careri, an Italian traveller, who passed through India in 1690 has written how the silver reached India from all parts of the world. His accounts provide insights into the exchange of cash and goods in 17th-century India, highlighting the importance of monetary transactions.
(iv) India’s Silver Reserves: This benefitted India as she did not have enough resources of silver. Therefore, from the sixteenth to the eighteeth centuries there was sufficient reserves of silver in India and the silver rupya was available readily.
(v) Monetary Transactions in Villages: The mutual exchange in villages took place. As villagers established their links in the urban markets, leading to a significant increase in monetary transactions. This integration made villages crucial components of the broader monetary market.
(vi) Payment of Wages and Coin Minting: The shift to monetary transactions enabled the payment of daily wages in cash rather than in kind. This resulted in an unprecedented expansion in the minting of coins and circulation of money allowing the Mughal state to extract taxes and revenues in cash.
These points illustrate the critical role monetary transactions played in the economic and social structures of the period, driven by political stability, international trade, and the integration of local markets into the larger economy.
Question 5: Examine the evidence that suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.
Answer 5: The economic foundation of the Mughal Empire was deeply rooted in land revenue. This reliance on agrarian income necessitated a robust administrative system to control agricultural production and efficiently assess and collect revenue from the expansive territories. The office of the Diwan was central to this system, overseeing the entire fiscal administration of the state. This led to the emergence of revenue officers who played a crucial role in shaping agricultural relations by maintaining meticulous records and ensuring effective revenue collection.
The process of tax assessment and collection involved gathering detailed information about the land and its productivity. The Mughal fiscal system followed a two-step process: (i) tax assessment and (ii) actual collection. The assessed amount was termed as ‘jama’ while the actual collected amount was ‘hasil.’ The officials responsible for this task were known as ‘amil-guzar.’ Under Akbar’s rule, it was instructed that these officials should encourage peasants to pay in cash, though payment in crops was also permitted. The state always aimed to maximize its share, but practical circumstances often limited the actual amount collected.
Land measurement was another critical aspect of the Mughal revenue system. Both cultivated and cultivable lands were meticulously measured in each province. During Akbar’s reign, Abu’l-Fazl documented all such land data in the ‘Ain-i-Akbari.’ Subsequent rulers continued these efforts to maintain accurate records of land measurement, underscoring the importance of land revenue in sustaining the Mughal fiscal structure.
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Question 6: To what extent do you think caste was a factor in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society?
Answer 6: Caste played a significant role in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society. Here’s how:
(i) Division of Cultivators by Caste: Cultivators were divided on the basis of their caste and other caste-like distinctions or caste-based distinctions. Among the peasants, many worked as agricultural labourers (majurs) or manacles, who were not allowed to live within the village. They resided outside the village, assigned to menial tasks, and lacked resources, resulting in poverty.
(ii) Permeation of Caste Distinctions into Other Communities: Caste distinctions permeated other communities as well. In Muslim communities menials were like halkhoron (scavengers). showing a direct relationship between caste, poverty, and social status.
(iii) Status of Marwar Rajputs in the Seventeenth Century: Marwar Rajputs were described as peasants and equated with Jats in the seventeenth century, indicating their inferior status within the caste hierarchy despite their Rajput identity.
(iv) Elevated Status of Certain Castes in Eastern Regions: Castes like Ahirs, Gujjars, and Malis attained an elevated status in the eastern regions, indicating a regional variation in caste status and economic roles.
(v) Acquisition of Peasant Status by Pastoral and Fishing Castes: Pastoral and fishing castes, such as the Sadgops and Kaivatas, acquired the status of peasants, demonstrating social mobility within certain contexts and regions.
Overall, caste was a fundamental factor shaping social and economic relations in agrarian society, affecting where individuals could live, their occupations, social status, and economic opportunities.
Question 7: How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
Answer 7: Transformation in the lives of forest-dwellers (sixteenth and seventeenth centuries):-
(i) Huge areas were covered with forests in the various parts of India in the 16th and 17th country. Forest-dwellers were called Jangli. The term ‘Jungli’ was used to describe those whose occupations included activities such as hunting, gathering of forest produce, and shifting cultivation. These activities were performed according to a specific reason in the various regions. Consider the example of the Bhils who fished in summer and collected forest produce in spring. Such activities enabled the forest tribes to be mobile which was a characteristic feature of their life.
(ii) As the state required elephants for the consolidation of mighty army, the peskesh levied on the forest people to supply of elephants.
(iii) The lives of the forest-dwellers led to the spread of commercial agriculture. Forest products like honey, beeswax, gum and lac were in huge demand. Gum and lac became major items of overseas exports in the seventeenth century, and earned valuable foreign exchange.
(iv) Elephants were also captured and sold.
(v) Tribes like the Punjab Lohanis engaged in overland trade with Afghanistan and internal trade in Punjab as well.
(vi) Social factors were also responsible for transforming the lives of the forest- dwellers.
(vii) Many tribal chiefs became zamindars, some even became kings. They recruit people from their own tribes in their army For example in Assam, the Ahom Kings depended on people who rendered military services in exchange of land.
(viii) By the sixteenth century, the transition from a tribal to a monarchial system had taken place. In Ain-i Akbari description has been mentioned about the existence of tribal kingdoms in north-eastern India. Description is also made regarding the kings who fought and conquered a number of tribes. New cultural influences also entered in the forested areas. Probably sufi saints played a remarkable role in spreading Islam in these areas.
Question 8: Examine the role played by zamindars in Mughal India.
Answer 8: The zamindars were the people who did not directly participate in the processes of agricultural production, but they enjoyed high status in the society.
(i) Property Ownership and Control (Milkiyat): Zamindars considered the land they controlled as their personal property (milkiyat). They had the authority to sell, give away, or mortgage their land, reflecting a sense of ownership that elevated their status and financial independence.
(ii) Social and Economic Privileges: They enjoyed many social and economic privileges because of their superior status in society.
(iii) Caste and Status: The zamindars belonged to the upper caste which added to their exalted status in society.
(iv) Service to the State (Khidmat): Zamindars rendered various services (khidmat) to the state. In return for these services, they were often granted higher positions and additional privileges. Their service could include administrative duties, military support, or other responsibilities that bolstered their standing with the Mughal authorities.
(v) Revenue Collection: One of the primary roles of zamindars was to collect revenue on behalf of the state. They received financial compensation for this task, which not only increased their wealth but also cemented their importance within the administrative framework of the Mughal Empire.
(vi) Military Control: Zamindars maintained strict control over military resources. They often kept a fortress and commanded a well-organized armed unit, comprising cavalry, artillery, and infantry.
(vii) Agricultural Development: The zamindars also played significant role in developing the agricultural land. They helped in the settlements of farmers by lending them money and agricultural instruments. It resulted in an increase in agricultural produce and the sale and purchase of land by the zamindars. There are also evidences that the zamindars held bazaars. The farmers came to these bazaars to sell their crops.
(viii) Social Hierarchy: If we observe social relation of village of Mughal age as a pyramid then zamindars were at the top. They occupied the highest position in the society.
(ix) Exploitation and Relationships with Peasants: No doubt the zamindars exploited the people but their relations with the farmers depended on their mutual togetherness and hereditary part on age. So, they were able to get peasants in case of the revolt against the state.
Question 9: Discuss the ways in which panchayats and village headmen regulated rural society.
Answer 9: Regulation of rural society by panchayats and headmen:-
Meaning of panchayat :- The village panchayat consisted of an assembly of elders, they represent different castes and communities except the menial class. Usually important were people of the village with hereditary right over their property.
General composition and function :- In the mixed caste village, the panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. The panchayet represented different castes and communities in the village.The village panchayat was headed by Muqaddam also known as mandal. He was elected with consensus of the village elders and remained in the office till he enjoyed the confidence of village elders. His function was to prepare village account with the help of patwari.
- The main function of panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities inhabiting the village were upheld.
- It had also the authority to levy fines and taxes.
- It can also give punishment like expulsion from the community.
- Each Jati in the village had its own Jati panchayat. Jati Panchayat wielded considerable power in the society. In Rajasthan, the Jati panchayats arbitrated civil disputes between members of the different castes. It also mediated in disputes claims on land, decided whether marriages had been performed according to that castes norm, etc. In most cases, the state respected the decisions taken by the Jati Panchayat.
- The panchayats were also regarded as the court of appeal, that would ensure that the state carried out its moral responsibilities.
- For justice petitions were often made to the panchayat collectively by a group of caste or a community protesting against what they considered to be morally illegitimate demands on the part of elites.
- In cases of excessive revenue demands, the panchayat often suggested a compromise. If this failed, the peasants took recourse to more drastic forms of punishment such as deserting the village.
Question 10: On an outline map of the world, mark the areas which had economic links with the Mughal Empire, and trace out possible routes of communication.
Answer 10: Iran, Afghanistan, China, the countries of Central and Western Asia, Italy, Portugal, France, Britain, Holland, etc.
Possible Routes : Trade that linked to Mughal Empire in India.
- Sea route via Atlantic ocean to Cape of Good Hope (South Africa), Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean.
- Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal to China Sea.
- Land Route from Central Asia to Afghanistan through modem Pakistan upto Kerala or Goa.