Self And Personality class 12 questions and answers: Class 12 Psychology chapter 2 ncert solutions
| Textbook | NCERT |
| Class | Class 12 |
| Subject | Psychology |
| Chapter | Chapter 2 |
| Chapter Name | Self And Personality class 12 ncert solutions |
| Category | Ncert Solutions |
| Medium | English |
Are you looking for Psychology Class 12 Chapter 2 question answers Self And Personality? Now you can download Class 12 Psychology chapter 2 ncert solutions pdf from here.
Question 1: What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?
Answer 1: The “self” refers to the essence of a person that includes their identity, consciousness, and sense of being. It is a central concept in philosophy, psychology, and spirituality, representing an individual’s awareness of their existence and their subjective experiences. The self can be understood as both a personal identity (individual self) and a broader connection to something larger (universal or collective self).
Indian Notion of Self: In the Indian philosophical tradition, the self is often viewed as either the eternal, unchanging soul (Atman) in Hinduism, which seeks unity with the universal reality (Brahman), or as the absence of a permanent self (Anatman) in Buddhism, emphasizing the self as an impermanent collection of elements. The Indian notion of self focuses on interconnectedness and transcendence, aiming for spiritual liberation such as Moksha or Nirvana.
Western Notion of Self: In contrast, the Western notion of self, influenced by individualism, rationalism, and existentialism, views the self as an autonomous and independent entity. Western thought often emphasizes personal identity, freedom, and self-expression, with philosophers like Descartes focusing on the thinking self and existentialists exploring the self’s quest for meaning in a subjective world. While the Indian approach highlights unity and transcendence of ego, the Western perspective prioritizes individuality and autonomy, reflecting differing cultural and philosophical priorities.
Key Differences
| Aspect | Indian Notion | Western Notion |
|---|---|---|
| Nature of Self | Eternal, interconnected (Atman/Brahman) | Autonomous, individual, rational |
| Focus | Spiritual liberation (Moksha, Nirvana) | Personal identity, self-expression |
| Perspective on Ego | Ego as an illusion (to be transcended) | Ego as integral to individuality |
| Ultimate Goal | Unity with the universal or liberation | Fulfillment of personal potential |
| Philosophical Approach | Metaphysical and introspective | Analytical and empirical |
Question 2: What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development?
Answer 2: Delay of gratification also known as self-control is a practice which means learning to delay or defer the more pleasurable or fun-loving needs and rewarding later.
It is considered important for adult development because any situations of life require resistance to situational pressures and control over ourselves. Human beings can control their behavior the way they want which is possible through what is commonly known as ‘willpower’. Delay or defer the satisfaction of certain needs or practicing self-control play a key role in the fulfillment of long-term goals.
Indian cultural tradition provides us with certain effective mechanisms (e.g. fasting in vrata or Roza and non-attachment with worldly things) for developing self-control. A number of psychological techniques of self-control have been suggested which are:-
1. Self-reinforcement :- It involves rewarding behaviors that have pleasant outcomes. For example, you may go to see a movie with friends, if you have done well in an examination. These techniques have been tried out and found quite effective with respect to self-regulation and self-control.
2. Observation of own behavior :- This provides us with necessary information that may be used to change, modify, or strengthen certain aspects of self.
3. Self-instruction :- It is another important technique. We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want to. Such instructions are quite effective in self-regulation.
Question 3: How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?
Answer 3: The word ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, which means a mask or false face which Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. According to Gordon Allport “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems thqt determine his unique adjustments to his environment.”
One of the major approaches to understanding personality was to develop theories on what it was. There are many broad personality theories, which can be grouped into four categories: –
- (i)Dynamic approaches, which emphasize on-going interaction among motives, impulses and psychological processes.
- (ii)Type and train approaches, which focus on people’s characteristics, stubbornness, shyness and so forth and how these characteristics are organized into systems.
- (iii)Humanistic approaches, which emphasize the self and the importance of the individual’s subjective view of the world.
- (iv) Learning and behavioural approaches, which emphasize the way habits are acquired through basic learning process.
Question 4: What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?
Answer 4: The trait theory of personality suggests that people have certain basic traits, and it is the strength and intensity of those traits that account for personality differences. The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality. The trait approach to personality focuses on identifying and measuring specific characteristics or traits that individuals possess.
Traits are enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that distinguish one person from another. Researchers using this approach aim to describe and understand these traits, often using factor analysis to identify the fundamental traits that underlie human personality.
On the other hand, the type approach categories individuals into distinct types or categories based on shared characteristics. Unlike traits, which are viewed as existing on a continuum and can vary in intensity, types are seen as discrete and qualitatively distinct categories. Each type is thought to represent a distinct configuration of traits that together define the type.
Question 5: How does Freud explain the structure of personality?
Answer 5: Sigmund Freud explains the structure of personality through his tripartite model, comprising the id, ego, and superego, which interact dynamically to shape human behavior and personality.
The id represents the primal, unconscious part of the mind, driven by instinctual desires and operating on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.
The ego, developing from the id, operates on the reality principle, mediating between the id’s demands, the superego’s moral standards, and the external world’s constraints. It is the rational, conscious part of the personality that ensures socially acceptable behavior.
The superego represents the internalized societal and parental standards, serving as the moral compass that judges actions and imposes feelings of guilt or pride.
These three components often conflict, with the ego striving to balance the id’s impulses and the superego’s ideals. Freud’s model illustrates how personality is a result of these interactions, influenced by both unconscious drives and societal expectations.
Question 6: How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?
Answer 6: While Karen Horney focuses more on interpersonal relationships during childhood, Alfred gives greater importance to personal goals of an individual. There are, in my opinion, Horney would attribute the cause of depression to parental relations with children which are characterized by excessive interference or indifference.
Deep anxiety would result from the behaviour rewards the child which, if is erratic, indifferent and discouraging feelings of isolation and helplessness will also emerge. Alfred Adler would, on the other hand, attribute depression to the feeling of inadequacy and guilt arising within the individual, due to the inability to achieve his/her personal goals.
These goals provide an individual with security and are important in overcoming feelings of inadequacy. If individual is not able to attain the goals and could not overcome inferiority appropriately then it leads to depression.
Question 7: What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualisation?
Answer 7: The humanistic approach to personality, developed primarily by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasizes the inherent goodness of individuals and their natural drive toward growth, self-expression, and fulfillment. Rogers proposed the concept of the fully functioning person, highlighting that personality development is motivated by an innate tendency to actualize one’s potential.
He believed behavior is goal-directed and that people, being innately good, strive for adaptive and self-actualizing behaviors. Rogers also emphasized the role of self-concept, which is shaped by social conditions: positive influences enhance self-esteem and flexibility, while negative conditions hinder personal growth.
Maslow, on the other hand, described self-actualization as the pinnacle of psychological development, where individuals realize their fullest potential. He viewed humans as fundamentally optimistic, capable of love, joy, and creativity. Maslow outlined a hierarchy of needs, suggesting that survival needs such as biological and security needs must be met before higher-order needs, such as self-esteem and self-actualization, can be pursued.
Self-actualization, according to Maslow, involves the pursuit of personal growth, meaning, and fulfillment, transcending basic survival instincts to embrace the unique potential of human life. The humanistic approach thus underscores the positive and aspirational aspects of human nature.
Question 8: Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods?
Answer 8: The main observational methods used in personality assessment are interview, observation, ratings, nomination, and situational tests.
(1) Interview :- It is a commonly used method for assessing personality. This involves talking to the person being assessed and asking specific questions. Diagnostic interviewing generally involves in-depth interviewing which seeks to go beyond the replies given by the person. Interviews may be structured or unstructured depending on the purpose or goals of assessment.
In unstructured interviews, the interviewer seeks to develop an impression about a person by asking a number of questions. The way a person presents her/himself and answers the questions carries enough potential to reveal her/his personality. The structured interviews address very specific questions and follow a set procedure. This is often done to make objective comparison of persons being interviewed. Use of rating scales may further enhance the objectivity of evaluations.
(2) Observation :- Observation of behaviour is another method which is very commonly used for the assessment of personality. Use of observation for personality assessment is a sophisticated procedure that cannot be carried out by untrained people. It requires careful training of the observer, and a fairly detailed guideline about analysis of behaviours in order to assess the personality of a given person.
For example, a clinical psychologist may like to observe her/his client’s interaction with family members and home visitors. With carefully designed observation, the clinical psychologist may gain considerable insight into a client’s personality.
(3) Behavioural Ratings :- These are frequently used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings. Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people who know the assessee intimately and have interacted with her/him over a period of time or have had a chance to observe her/him. They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural qualities. The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms. It has been found that use of numbers or general descriptive adjectives in rating scales always creates confusion for the rater. In order to use ratings effectively, the traits should be clearly defined in terms of carefully stated behavioural anchors.
(4) Nomination :- This method is often used in obtaining peer assessment. It can be used with persons who have been in long-term interaction and who know each other very well. In using nomination, each person is asked to choose one or more persons of the group with whom s/he would like to work, study, play or participate in any other activity. The person may also be asked to specify the reason for her/his choices.
(5) Situational Tests :- A variety of situational tests have been devised for the assessment of personality. The most commonly used test of this kind is the situational stress test. It provides us with information about how a person behaves under stressful situations. The test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who are instructed to be non-cooperative and interfering. The test involves a kind of role playing. The person is instructed to play a role for which s/he is observed. A verbal report is also obtained on what s/he was asked to do. The situation may be realistic one, or it may be created through a video play.
Problems faced in using these methods :-
Observation and interview methods are characterised by the following limitations :-
- Professional training required for collection of useful data through these methods is quite demanding and time-consuming.
- Maturity of the psychologist is a precondition for obtaining valid data through these techniques.
- Mere presence of the observer may contaminate the results. As a stranger, the observer may influence the behaviour of the person being observed and thus not obtain good data.
Behavioural ratings suffers from the following major limitations :-
(1) Raters often display certain biases that colour their judgments of different traits. For example, most of us are greatly influenced by a single favourable or unfavourable trait. This often forms the basis of a rater’s overall judgment of a person. This tendency is known as the halo effect.
(2) Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle of the scale (called middle category bias) by avoiding extreme positions, or in the extreme positions (called extreme response bias) by avoiding middle categories on the scale. These tendencies can be overcome by providing raters with appropriate training or by developing such scales in which the response bias is likely to be small.
Nominations received may be analysed to understand the personality and behavioural qualities of the person. This technique has been found to be highly dependable, although it may also be affected by personal biases.
Question 9: What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests?
Answer 9: Structured personality tests are standardized assessments that use specific, pre-defined questions or statements to evaluate an individual’s personality traits. Responses are typically scored using fixed scales, such as multiple-choice or true/false formats, ensuring consistent and objective results.
Two of the most widely used structured personality tests are:
1. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) :- This inventory is widely used as a test in personality assessment. Hathaway and McKinley developed this test as a helping tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but the test has been found very effective in identifying varieties of psychopathology. Its revised version is available as MMPI-2. It consists of 567 statements. The subject has to judge each statement as ‘true’ or ‘false’ for her/him. The test is divided into 10 subscales, which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion. In India, Mallick and Joshi have developed the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) along the lines of MMPI.
2. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) :- Developed by Eysenck this test initially assessed two dimensions of personality, called introverted-extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable. These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits. Later on, Eysenck added a third dimension, called psychoticism. It is linked to psychopathology that represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting with people, and a tendency to defy social conventions. A person scoring high on this dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric, and antisocial. This test is also widely used.
Question 10: Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists?
Answer 10: Projective techniques are psychological assessment tools designed to uncover underlying thoughts, feelings, and aspects of personality that might not emerge through more structured methods. These techniques rely on the premise that individuals project their unconscious thoughts and emotions onto ambiguous stimuli, revealing hidden facets of their personality.
How Projective Techniques Assess Personality:
- Ambiguous Stimuli: Individuals are exposed to ambiguous images, incomplete sentences, or tasks, allowing for varied and personalized interpretations.
- Projection: According to psychoanalytic theory, people unconsciously project their own thoughts, feelings, and desires onto the stimuli, offering insight into their internal world.
Widely Used Projective Tests:
- Rorschach Inkblot Test: In this test, participants describe what they see in a series of inkblots. The responses are analyzed for patterns and themes that may reflect emotional functioning, thought processes, and personality traits.
- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Participants create stories based on a series of ambiguous pictures. The content, structure, and emotional tone of the stories provide insight into the individual’s motivations, interpersonal dynamics, and worldview.
While projective techniques are valuable in exploring unconscious aspects of personality, their interpretation often requires significant expertise, and their reliability and validity remain topics of debate.
Question 11: Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career. Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.
Answer 11: According to Carl Rogers’ terminology, People try to express their capabilities, potentials and talents to the fullest extent possible. There is an inborn tendency among persons that directs them to actualise their inherited nature. He made two assumptions about human behaviour. One is that behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile. The second is that people (who are innately good) will almost always choose adaptive, self-actualising behaviour. He noted that self was an important element in the experience of his clients.
Thus, his theory is structured around the concept of self. The theory assumes that people are constantly engaged in the process of actualising their true self. He recognises the role of social influences in the development of self-concept. When social conditions are positive, the self-concept and self-esteem are high. In contrast, when the conditions are negative, the self-concept and self-esteem are low.
Thus, Arihant family will disapprove his choice of career as they want to be a doctor to satisfy the self concept. Arihant’s family will want him to pursue the career of their inherited nature and will become stubborn about it even though they love him. They will try their best to stop him from choosing the career of singer which is not in their inheritence.