Evaluated of The Amara-nayaka system why was Amara-nayaka system major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire : –
- Amar Nayaka system was major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- It is likely that the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
- Those were given territories to govern by the rayas, to collect taxes and other dues from peasants, craft persons and traders.
- They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
- Effective fighting force.
- Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples & irrigation works.
- The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually.
- They personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.
- During the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent Kingdoms.
- Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring their from one place to another.
Most striking features of the location of Vijayanagara (Physical) : –
- Two main rivers – Tungabhadra and Krishna
- Natural Basin formed by river Tungabhadra.
- Granite hills that seem to form a girdle around the city.
- Number of streams flow down to the river from the rocky hills.
Water Resources of Vijayanagara ( in short ) : –
- The region of vijayanagara is one of the most arid zones of the peninsula.
- Elaborate arrangements made by Vijayanagara rulers to store water and conduct it to the city.
- Natural Basin formed by Tungabhadra
- A number of streams flow down to the river from these rocky out crops.
- Kamalapuram tank
- Hiriya Canals
Water Resources of Vijayanagara : –
🔹 The most important feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in North-Easterly direction.
🔹 Granite hills surround the city and A number of streams flow down to the river from these rocky outcrops.
🔹 Embankments were built along these streams to create reservoirs of different sizes.
🔹 This region is among the most arid zones of the peninsula, so arrangements were made to store rainwater and transmit it to the city.
Kamalapuram tank : –
🔹 The most important such tank was built in the early years of the fifteenth century and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Water from this tank not only irrigated fields nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”.
Hiriya canal : –
🔹 One of the most important waterworks was the Hiriya canal. This was built by the kings of the Sangama dynasty. Water for the canal was drawn from a dam across the Tungabhadra and it irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the ‘sacred centre’ from the ‘urban core’.
Features of Vijayanagara fortification ( in short ) : –
- Seven lines of fortification.
- Fortification of urban core & Royal Centre.
- Gateways in fortified walls and Roads.
- Fortification of agricultural fields.
- Abdul Razzaq, a persian ambassador wrote about fortification of Vijayanagara empire.
- The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.
- The mosonity construction was slightly tapered.
- No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the Construction.
- The stone Blocks were wedge shaped which helped them in placed and the inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.
- There were large granaries within fortified areas.
- Most significant was its agricultural tracks between the 1st, 2nd & 3rd.
Fortifications of Vijayanagara : –
🔹 The great fortress walls enclosed the city. Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the fifteenth century, was impressed by the fortifications of Vijayanagara and mentioned about the seven lines of forts.
- These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
- The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.
- The massive masonry construction was slightly tapered.
- No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction.
- The stone blocks were wedge shaped, which held them in place.
- the inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.
- Square or rectangular bastions projected outwards.
🔹 What was most significant about this fortification is that it enclosed agricultural tracts.
Archaeologist’s Study about Roads : –
🔹 Archaeologists have studied roads within the city and those leading out from it. These have been identified by following paths through gateways and also by identifying footpaths.
🔹 Roads generally turn around through the valleys and avoided rocky lands. Some of the most important roads extended from temple gateways and were bordered by bazaars.
Fortification of Agricultural Lands : –
🔹 The most important thing about this fortification was that it surrounded agricultural lands. Abdur Razzaq noted that between the first, second and the third walls there were cultivated fields, gardens and houses. But Domingo Paes noted different things about these three walls.
🔹 According to Paes from this first circuit until you enter the city there is a great distance in which fields are existed. In these fields rice was sown. It had many gardens and much water, which comes from two lakes.
🔹 There was an evidence of an agricultural land between the sacred centre and the urban core. This land was supplied water from a canal system which drew water from the river Tungabhadra.
Advantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city : –
- The advantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city were:
🔹 Since siege (military) operations sometimes lasts for many months, this kind of system enables farmers to do agriculture and produce grains even during the siege operation.
🔹 Agricultural lands were often destroyed first during war, which were outside the forts. But in this case that was not possible because they were well protected inside the fortification.
Disadvantage of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city : –
- The disadvantage of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city were:
🔹 This was more expensive and complicated strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself.
🔹 Expansion of agriculture to other areas beyond the fortified area becomes difficult. Agriculture has to confined within this area.
Strategy behind Fortification : –
🔹 In the medieval period, the objective of the military operation was mostly to starve the defenders so that they will accept the defeat.
🔹 These operations lasted for months and sometimes even years, so normally rulers were prepared for such situations by building large granaries within fortified areas.
🔹 However, The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself.
The Inner Core of the Urban Complex : –
🔹 A second line of fortification went round the inner core of the urban complex, and a third line surrounded the royal centre, Within this, there were major buildings present which were surrounded by their own high walls. The well-guarded gates which were linked to major roads of the city were used to enter the fort.
Gateways : –
🔹 Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often defined the structures to which they regulated access.
🔹 The arch on the gateway leading into the fortified settlement and dome over the gate were regarded as typical features of the architecture introduced by the Turkish Sultans.
🔹 This style is referred as Indo-Islamic by art historians, because it developed through the interaction with local building practices in different regions.
The Urban Core : –
🔹 Archaeologists found little archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. They have found fine Chinese porcelain (Chinaware) in some areas in the North-Eastern corner of the urban core and this shows that these areas might have been occupied by rich traders.
🔹 This area was also the Muslim residential quarter. Tombs and mosques present here have different functions but their architecture resembles the Mandapas that were found in temples of Hampi.
🔹 Field surveys show that the entire area was scattered with number of shrines and small temples. This shows that different cults were present there, which might be supported by different communities.
🔹 The surveys also indicate that wells, rainwater tanks, temple tanks were used as sources of water to the ordinary town dwellers.
Houses information described by Duarte Barbosa : –
🔹 Sixteenth-century Portuguese traveller Duarte Barbosa described the houses of ordinary people. The houses had roofs made of straw, palm leaves, etc but were well built. They were arranged according to the occupations in long streets with many open places.
The Royal Centre of Vijayanagara : –
🔸 Temples : – The royal centre was located in the South-Western part of the settlement. It had over 60 temples. It shows that support of temples and cults was important for rulers who tried to establish and get approved of their authority through association with the gods and goddesses housed in the shrines.
🔸 Structures : – Around thirty building complexes were identified as palaces. There were relatively large structures that do not seem to be associated with ritual functions.
Difference between these structures and temples : –
🔹 The difference between these structures and temples is that the latter were constructed entirely of masonry, while the superstructure of the secular buildings was made of perishable materials.
The Buildings in Royal Centres : –
🔹 On the basis of the form of buildings and their functions, different structures were assigned their names. The king’s palace was the largest of the buildings but there was no strong evidence that it was a royal residence.
🔹 It had two impressive platforms, called the ”audience hall” and the ”mahanavami dibba”. The entire complex was surrounded by high double walls with a street running between them.