Weights : –
🔹 Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert and generally cubical with no markings.
🔹 The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. upto 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system.
🔹 The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have also been found.
Priest-kings : –
🔹 A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”. This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region.
ANCIENT AUTHORITY ( Palaces and kings ) : –
🔹 There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society.
🔹 There are three different opinions regarding governance in Harappan culture.
🔸 First opinion : – Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
🔸 Second opinion : – Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.
🔸Third opinion : – Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, like
- the evidence for planned settlements,
- the standardised ratio of brick size,
- and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.
The End of the Civilization : –
🔹 There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
🔹 In the few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE. there appears to have been a transformation of material culture, marked by
- the disappearance of the distinctive artefacts of the civilisation weights, seals, special beads.
- Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation also disappeared.
- In general, far fewer materials were used to make far fewer things.
- House construction techniques deteriorated and large public structures were no longer produced.
Several explanations for the decline of Harappan civilization : –
🔹 The reasons responsible for the end of the civilization is still unknown. But probable reasons are;
- Climatic Change
- Deforestation
- Excessive floods
- Over use of the landscape
- The shifting and or drying up of rivers
- Invasion most probably by the Aryans
🔹 Harappan state might have ended because there are evidences of absence of distinctive art facts like seals, pottery, etc.
Main contributions of the Harappan civilization : –
🔹 Some of the main contributions of the Harappan civilisation are as follows:
- Town planning
- Craft production style
- Construction of Public buildings
- Excellent drainage system
- Manufacturing of seals
- Domestic and international trade
- The concept of an urban civilisation
- Agriculture and animal husbandry
- Use of jewellery
- Skilled citizen management
- Building art and architecture
Alexander Cunningham : –
🔹 Cunningham, was the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). He began archaeological excavations in the mid-19th century.
🔹 Cunningham’s use the written word (texts and inscriptions) as a guide to investigations. In fact, Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic (c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and later periods.
Cunningham’s Confusion : –
🔹 Harappan artefacts were found fairly often during the nineteenth century and some of these reached Cunningham, he did not realise how old these were.
🔹 A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar.
🔹 This was because he, like many others, thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.
🔹 Given his specific focus, it is not surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa.
A new old civilisation : –
🔹 Seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the early decades of the twentieth century, in layers that were definitely much older than Early Historic levels.
🔹 Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director- General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
🔹 Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together, even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers. As a result valuable information about the context of these finds were irretrievably lost.
Daya Ram Sahni : –
🔹 Seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologist such as Daya Ram Sahni in the early decades of th 20th century.
Rakhal Das Banerjee : –
🔹 Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro. Leading to conjecture that these sites were part of a single archaeological culture.
John Marshall : –
🔹 In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilisation to the world in the form of Indus valley.
🔹 John Marshall’s stint as Director-General of the ASI marked a major change in Indian archaeology. He was the first professional archaeologist to work in India, and brought his experience of working in Greece and Crete to the field.
REM Wheeler : –
🔹 In 1944, REM Wheeler as Director-General of the ASI, emphasised the need to follow the stratigraphy of mound rather than to dig mechanically along uniform horizontal line.
🔹 He rectified the previous problems faced by the archaeologists.
Achievements of R. E.M. Wheeler as Director General of Archaeological Survey of India : –
🔹 The contribution of R-E.M wheeler as the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India is extremely significant.
- Being an ex-serviceman, his experience was very useful in securing the evidence.
- Instead of excavating the mound mechanically, he thought it appropriate to follow the stratigraphy of the mound.
- His approach to follow the stratigraphy was very useful.
- Wheeler wrote in his memoir that on a warm may night in 1944, he had a four miles tonga – ride to reach Harappa. He was afraid that people would consider him mad seeing his passion.
- Seeing his efforts, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan archaeology
New techniques and questions : –
🔹 It was R.E.M. Wheeler, after he took over as Director General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified this problem. Wheeler recognised that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.
🔹 The frontiers of the Harappan civilisation have little or no connection with present-day national boundaries. However, with the partition of the subcontinent and the creation of Pakistan, the major sites are now in Pakistani territory. While Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhigarhi and most recently Dholavira have been discovered, explored and excavated as part of these efforts, fresh explorations continue.
🔹 Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan archaeology. Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have been jointly working at both Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
🔹 They are using modern scientific techniques including surface exploration to recover traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains as well as to minutely analyse every scrap of available evidence. These explorations promise to yield interesting results in the future.
PROBLEMS OF PIECING TOGETHER THE PAST : –
🔹 it is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilisation. Rather, it is material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life.
🔹 This material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc. Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose, especially in tropical. regions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc.
Classifying finds : –
🔹 Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise. Archaeologists then classify their finds.
- One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc.
- The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.
🔹 An understanding of the function of an artefact is often shaped by its resemblance with present-day things beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious examples. Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence.
Problems of Archaeological Interpretation
🔹 They are perhaps most evident in attempts to reconstruct religious practices. Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance.
🔹 These included terracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These were regarded as mother goddesses. Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardised posture, seated with one hand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” – was also similarly classified.
Proto-Shiva
🔹 Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship. Some animals such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures.
🔹 In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism. Besides, conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.
Related Chapters
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kings farmers and towns Notes
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Through the eyes of travellers notes
Bhakti Sufi traditions notes
An imperial capital vijayanagara notes
Peasants zamindars and the state notes
Colonialism and the countryside notes
Rebels and the raj notes
Mahatma gandhi and the national movement notes
Framing the constitution notes